Patterson , Pamela R. Pehrsson , Rahul Bahadur , Abby G. Ershow , Meena Somanchi. Nutrients , 12 5 , Multinodular Goiter. Enette Larson-Meyer , Demetre E. Thyroid Function and Nutrient Status in the Athlete. Current Sports Medicine Reports , 19 2 , Taylor , John H. Gostas , D. Enette Larson-Meyer , Hillary A. Yoder , Ainsley E. Huffman , Evan C.
Nutrients , 12 1 , Iodide Metabolism and Effects. Helal , Heba A. Eassa , Ahmed M. Amer , Mohamed A. Eltokhy , Ivan Edafiogho , Mohamed I. Systemic endocrinopathies thyroid conditions and diabetes : impact on postnatal life of the offspring. Fertility and Sterility , 6 , Suplotova , G. Sharuho , L. Kovalzhina , O. Hygiene and sanitation , 98 2 , Nutritional status of iodine in children: When appropriateness relies on milk consumption and not adequate coverage of iodized salt in households.
Biological Trace Element Research , 1 , Iodine-Induced Thyroid Dysfunction. Goris , Victor J. Temple , Nienke Zomerdijk , Karen Codling ,. Iodine status of children and knowledge, attitude, practice of iodised salt use in a remote community in Kerema district, Gulf province, Papua New Guinea.
Iodine consumption and cognitive performance: Confirmation of adequate consumption. Tracing the sources of iodine species in a non-saline wastewater. Chemosphere , , Nutrients , 10 7 , Lazarus , Colin M. Dayan , Onyebuchi E. Global epidemiology of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Nature Reviews Endocrinology , 14 5 , Nutrients , 10 4 , Nutrients , 10 1 , Unsatisfactory results of the Tunisian universal salt iodization program on national iodine levels. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis , 64 , Role of medical resource level in iodine deficiency disorder.
Assessment of iodine importance and needs for supplementation in school-aged children in Portugal. The importance of minerals in human nutrition: Bioavailability, food fortification, processing effects and nanoencapsulation. The Effects of Iodine Excess. Iodine in food- and dietary supplement—composition databases. Comparison of 2 methods for estimating the prevalences of inadequate and excessive iodine intakes. Research needs for assessing iodine intake, iodine status, and the effects of maternal iodine supplementation.
Nutrients , 8 6 , Changes in iodine status among US adults, — International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition , 67 2 , Identification, toxicity and control of iodinated disinfection byproducts in cooking with simulated chlor am inated tap water and iodized table salt.
Water Research , 88 , Specific anion effects in Artemia salina. Lewandowski , Michael K. Peterson , Gail Charnley. Iodine supplementation and drinking-water perchlorate mitigation. Food and Chemical Toxicology , 80 , Iodized Salt in Cambodia: Trends from to Nutrients , 7 6 , Iodized Salt Sales in the United States. Nutrients , 7 3 , DiNicolantonio , James H. O'Keefe , Sean C. Population-wide Sodium Reduction: Reasons to Resist. A Cochrane review concluded that iodine supplementation in children living in areas of iodine deficiency appears to both positively affect physical and mental development and decrease mortality with only minor and transient adverse effects [ 71 ].
The effects of mild iodine deficiency during childhood are more difficult to quantify. Some research suggests that mild iodine deficiency is associated with subtle neurodevelopmental deficits and that iodine supplementation might improve cognitive function in mildly iodine-deficient children [ 51 ]. These findings suggest that correcting mild iodine deficiency in children could improve certain components of cognition.
Additional research is required to fully understand the effects of mild iodine deficiency and iodine supplementation on cognitive function. Fibrocystic breast disease Fibrocystic breast disease is a benign condition characterized by lumpy, painful breasts and palpable fibrosis. It commonly affects women of reproductive age, but it can also occur during menopause, especially in women taking estrogens [ 73 ]. Breast tissue has a high concentration of iodine, especially during pregnancy and lactation [ 4 , 74 ].
Some research suggests that iodine supplementation might be helpful for fibrocystic breast disease, although a specific mechanism of action has not been established [ 75 ] and data are limited. A more recent randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial had similar findings.
In this study, researchers randomly assigned women 18—50 years of age with fibrosis and a history of breast pain to receive tablets containing 0 mcg, 1, mcg, 3, mcg, or 6, mcg of iodine per day [ 75 ]. After 5 months of treatment, women receiving doses of 3, or 6, mcg iodine had a significant decrease in breast pain, tenderness, and nodularity compared with those receiving placebo or 1, mcg iodine. The researchers also reported a dose-dependent reduction in self-assessed pain.
None of the doses was associated with major adverse events or changes in thyroid function test results. Moreover, the doses used in these studies approximately 1,—6, mcg per day are several times higher than the iodine UL of 1, mcg for adults. Doses of this magnitude should only be used under the guidance of a physician [ 2 ]. Radiation-induced thyroid cancer Nuclear accidents can release radioactive iodine into the environment, increasing the risk of thyroid cancer in exposed individuals, especially children [ 77 , 78 ].
Thyroidal uptake of radioactive iodine is higher in people with iodine deficiency than in people with iodine sufficiency. For this reason, iodine-deficient individuals have a particularly high risk of developing radiation-induced thyroid cancer when exposed to radioactive iodine.
The FDA has approved potassium iodide as a thyroid-blocking agent to reduce the risk of thyroid cancer in radiation emergencies involving the release of radioactive iodine [ 77 ].
The FDA recommends that exposed people take a daily pharmacological dose 16— mg potassium iodide, depending on age until the risk of significant radiation exposure ends [ 77 , 78 ].
Potassium iodide was widely used in Poland following the Chernobyl accident and childhood thyroid cancer rates did not increase substantially in subsequent years [ 79 ]. In areas where iodide prophylaxis was not used, such as Belarus and Ukraine, where many children were mildly iodine-deficient, the incidence of thyroid cancer sharply increased among children and adolescents [ 77 ].
High intakes of iodine can cause some of the same symptoms as iodine deficiency—including goiter, elevated TSH levels, and hypothyroidism—because excess iodine in susceptible individuals inhibits thyroid hormone synthesis and thereby increases TSH stimulation, which can produce goiter [ 2 , 80 ]. Iodine-induced hyperthyroidism can also result from high iodine intakes, including when iodine is administered to treat iodine deficiency. Studies have also shown that excessive iodine intakes cause thyroiditis and thyroid papillary cancer [ 2 , 80 ].
Cases of acute iodine poisoning are rare and are usually caused by doses of many grams. Acute poisoning symptoms include burning of the mouth, throat, and stomach; fever; abdominal pain; nausea; vomiting; diarrhea; weak pulse; and coma [ 2 ]. Responses to excess iodine and the doses required to cause adverse effects vary [ 81 ]. Some people, such as those with autoimmune thyroid disease and iodine deficiency, may experience adverse effects with iodine intakes considered safe for the general population [ 2 , 5 ].
In most people, iodine intakes from foods and supplements are unlikely to exceed the UL [ 2 ]. Long-term intakes above the UL increase the risk of adverse health effects. The ULs do not apply to individuals receiving iodine for medical treatment, but such individuals should be under the care of a physician [ 2 ]. Iodine supplements have the potential to interact with several types of medications. A few examples are provided below. Individuals taking these medications on a regular basis should discuss their iodine intakes with their healthcare providers.
Taking high doses of iodine with anti-thyroid medications can have an additive effect [ 81 ] and could cause hypothyroidism.
Taking potassium iodide with ACE inhibitors can increase the risk of hyperkalemia elevated blood levels of potassium [ 81 ]. The federal government's — Dietary Guidelines for Americans notes that "Because foods provide an array of nutrients and other components that have benefits for health, nutritional needs should be met primarily through foods. In some cases, fortified foods and dietary supplements are useful when it is not possible otherwise to meet needs for one or more nutrients e.
For more information about building a healthy dietary pattern, refer to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans and the U. Department of Agriculture's MyPlate. This fact sheet by the Office of Dietary Supplements ODS provides information that should not take the place of medical advice.
We encourage you to talk to your healthcare providers doctor, registered dietitian, pharmacist, etc. Any mention in this publication of a specific product or service, or recommendation from an organization or professional society, does not represent an endorsement by ODS of that product, service, or expert advice. Updated: March 29, History of changes to this fact sheet. Find ODS on:. Strengthening Knowledge and Understanding of Dietary Supplements.
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J Food Compost Anal. Development of databases on iodine in foods and dietary supplements. Nutrients ;10; Iodine database PDF. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville MD. July Food and Drug Administration. Roseland J. Personal Communication. August 13, Composition of Core Foods of the U. Food Supply, Copper, Manganese, Selenium, and Iodine. J Food Comp Anal. Variability of iodine content in common commercially available edible seaweeds.
Fortification Legislation. Iodized salt data. Iodine nutrition: iodine content of iodized salt in the United States. Environ Sci Technol. Revised April 1, National Institutes of Health. Dietary Supplement Label Database.
Bioavailability of seaweed iodine in human beings. Cell Mol Biol Noisy-le-grand. Iodine content of the best-selling United States adult and prenatal multivitamin preparations. Thyroid ; J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. Update on dietary intake of perchlorate and iodine from U. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol ; Nutritional elements in U. J Am Diet Assoc. Total diet study nutritional elements, Hyattsville, MD: U. Methods of assessment of iodine status in humans: a systematic review.
However, if you believe you are at a higher risk of iodine deficiency, you may want to consider using iodized salt.
Salt, also known as sodium chloride, is abundant in most people's diets. This article explores whether salt is healthy or unhealthy.
Salt has a bad reputation, but some evidence shows it may not have much impact on heart disease. This article takes a look at the research. This article compares several different types of salt, including himalayan salt, kosher salt, celtic salt, regular table salt and sea salt. An iodine deficiency can cause uncomfortable and even severe symptoms, which often resemble those of hypothyroidism.
Here are 10 signs and symptoms of…. One-third of people are at risk of iodine deficiency. These 9 iodine-rich foods can help keep you healthy. Some people think that the amount of sodium you consume plays a role. Craving salt may be a sign of a medical condition.
Here are seven reasons you may be craving salt. Sodium chloride—also known as salt—is used in medical treatments such as IV infusions and catheter flushes. Learn more about the medical uses for salt. Myxedema is a result of undiagnosed or untreated hypothyroidism, or when someone stops taking their thyroid supplements. Learn more. Health Conditions Discover Plan Connect.
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