Table 4. Distribution of roots B in neoclassical compounds. Semi-attractive roots Interestingly, all disyllabic roots are non-attractive. Clearly, more research is needed to establish whether there are formal reasons why a root is attractive or if it is mostly lexical marking.
To do so, we need to take into account both the presence of the suffix and that of a certain type of root B. It contains entries, including entries in -ional. In this case, the difference in morphological structure is reflected in the phonological behaviour of the derivative.
Consider the alternations in However, -ion is very rarely suffixed with strong suffixes which would place stress on one of its two syllables so that these syllables could be revealed. We will not attempt to solve the issue of the number of syllables in -ion here but we will simply consider how the two options lead to different interpretations.
Therefore, the only way to determine if -al is affecting their pronunciation is by considering vowel values. However, this is not the case; free vowels in bases are systematically preserved, with the exception of national. However, the situation is more complex.
In this last set, there is no common preceding element to be found. We do find some evidence for direct computation but it does not seem to be the general case in this set. The lack of an active pattern could explain the lack of uniformity. The OED seems to confirm that -al is indeed unproductive, as it lists only new adjectives between and and these are mostly specialised words e. It also lists one new adjective between and , cissexual , which a case of prefixation.
The two entries in 17 present variation with a penultimate stress pattern. However, only the first one could present a potential conflict with the NSR, thus it seems to be the only relevant case showing that the rule does apply. Due to the small number of entries and of relevant cases of conflict with the NSR, it seems difficult to draw any conclusions regarding the rule of opaque prefixed constructions other than nouns.
However, we will refrain from drawing any conclusions from just two compounds. This element can be:. Can this be an argument to say that -al , by itself, is not a strong suffix? Two answers may be proposed:. In general, the last strong suffix or ending triggers direct computation, which means that -al , if it were strong, should trigger direct computation in both environments. However, this is not the case for -ional , which may suggest that -iacal is an exceptional micro-paradigm and that -al is stress-neutral after all.
Outside of this environment, -ate regularly shifts stress to the antepenultimate, e. However, in both cases, -iacal should be analysed as exceptional. As we have seen, this set is the least regular of all. Therefore, we cannot say that -al is strong in that set, but we cannot say it is completely neutral either. Neoclassical compounds constitute a special set, whose stress patterns are constrained by the interaction between the root B and -al.
We cannot answer our second question without specifying whether we are trying to account for surface patterns or to predict stress patterns from underlying vowels. Virtually all words in the corpus follow the generalisation stating that words with heavy penults have penultimate stress and that words with light penults have antepenultimate stress.
Therefore, the surface generalisation holds. Let us now consider what can be predicted. Let us first see if we can predict the stress behaviour of derivatives based on properties of their bases.
We can reliably do so if they have a closed penult because of the strict permanence of consonants. Burzio illustrates this contrast by the asymmetry in the ability of vowels and consonants to retain stress, e. Let us assume that this vowel is underlying. We leave out -ical derivatives as the vowel we are looking at is often absent in the base or is that of the suffix -ic , in which case stress never shifts except in the case of exceptionally stressed -ic words. We found 15 such cases, which are detailed in Table 5.
Stress patterns of derivatives according to the nature of the penultimate vowel in the base. The only cases that are problematic are the four -ival cases in 20a , whose bases do not have long vowels in their final syllable. To account for these cases, we could postulate underlying long vowels for these words only, which would be somehow ad hoc and would not offer any reason so as to why other words with reduced vowels should have underlying short vowels.
And if the cause for this behaviour is not phonological, then what is the status of -val? We started by looking at derivatives, because it is the only thing we can do without postulating underlying vowels which are not attested elsewhere than in the derivative whose pronunciation we are trying to predict.
Doing so would constitute an attractive solution, as it would directly predict the correct surface patterns. The view according to which vowel values are lexical is widely shared and it predicts for example that underlying schwas are unstressable.
This seems rather strange because, if we see reduction as being a consequence of stresslessness, then how can it also be its cause? This seems unsatisfactory because one can postulate any underlying representation to produce the correct surface form, which means this approach is non-predictive, and does not give a full account of vowel values. Therefore, the weight-based approach may offer a simpler solution with fewer generalisations even though it brings up what we regard as serious issues.
The view developed in the Guierrian School, and in this paper, seeks to predict both stress and vowel values and sees the latter as being, at least partly, conditioned by the presence or absence of the former. Such a simple system is a fairly good description of surface patterns and could very well be used for teaching purposes.
However, when it comes to demonstration, we have shown the need for more parameters to be taken into consideration. The stress patterns of -al adjectives seem to be regulated mostly by both the presence of the suffix and certain elements preceding it e. C 2 , suffixes like -iac and -oid or the root B in neoclassical compounds and by larger generalisations, in which case the stress patterns cannot be attributed to -al.
Overall, derivational relationships exhibit direct computation of primary stress, but we have shown that it is not possible to demonstrate that -al alone is responsible for this behaviour, given that:. In any case, this paper has shown the necessity of using empirical data because it may allow us to discover that the empirical situation is far more heterogeneous than what the literature suggests. Anttila, Arto. Aronoff, Mark. Word Formation in Generative Grammar.
The Oxford reference guide to English Morphology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Benua, Laura. Transderivational Identity: Phonological Relations between Words. Jochen Trommer, Jochen Trommer. Burzio, Luigi. Principles of English Stress. New York: Cambridge University Press, Chomsky, Noam, and Morris Halle. The Sound Pattern of English.
Collie, S. Collie, Sarah. Dabouis, Quentin. Dahak, Anissa. D dissertation. Deschamps, Alain. Paris: Ophrys, English Phonology and Graphophonemics. Fournier, Jean-Michel. Fournier, Pierre. Giegerich, Heinz J. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Girard, Isabelle. Guierre, Lionel. Paris: Armand Colin - Longman, Studies in Phonology. Eugeniuc Cyran. Lublin: Folium, More 'preventer' Meaning preventers Related Words. How can we make the selection of words better for you? Thank you. We have received your feedback.
Our CEO would like to contact you for further feedback! Are you interested? Name Optional :. Email Optional :.
Words are expressive, emotive, nuanced, subtle, erudite and discerning! Unfortunately words are sometimes also elusive, deceptive, fleeting in memory. Are we in the right direction? For some terms, it is often acceptable to choose freely among open, hyphenated, and solid alternatives, even though the term has been used in English for an extended period for instance, lifestyle , life—style , or life style. Although the styling that ultimately takes hold for a compound may be determined by nothing more than editorial and writerly preference, there are patterns of new compounds as they become established in the English language.
Compound nouns, for instance, are usually written as one word; compound verbs are generally written as two; compound adjectives are often written with a hyphen. But note that we added "usually," "generally," and "often"—we're hedging. Be advised that we'll be using noncommittal terms throughout, and, essentially, that's the point of the following articles: there aren't fast rules to forming compounds, but there are patterns.
Compound adjectives are combinations of words that work together to modify a noun—technically, they work as unit modifiers. As unit modifiers, they are distinguished from other strings of adjectives that may also precede a noun.
For instance, in the constructions "a low, level tract of land" or "that long, lonesome highway," the two adjectives each modify the noun separately.
We are talking about a tract of land that is both low and level and about a highway that is both long and lonesome. These are regarded as coordinate modifiers. In the examples "a low monthly fee" and "a wrinkled red shirt," the first adjective modifies the noun plus the second adjective.
In other words, we mean that the monthly fee is low and the red shirt is wrinkled. These are noncoordinate modifiers.
In the example "low-level radiation," we do not mean radiation that is low and level or level radiation that is low; we mean radiation that is at a low level. Both words are working as a unit to modify the noun—thus, they are unit modifiers. Unit modifiers are mostly hyphenated. Hyphens not only make it easier for readers to grasp the relationship of the words but also aid in avoiding confusion.
For example, the hyphen in "a call for a more-specialized curriculum" removes any ambiguity as to which the word more modifies, and the hyphen in re-sign distinguishes it from resign. Other examples are co-ed and coed , shell-like and shelllike , over-react and overreact , co-worker and coworker , which have either consecutive vowels, doubled consonants, or simply an odd combination of letters and which the inclusion of a hyphen aids in their readability.
There are also hyphenated particle compounds, like in-house , off-the-cuff , off-line or offline , and on-line or online. The styling of Internet internet? We continue to be eagle-eyed lexicographers in our Western Massachusetts-based aerie.
Compounds—new, permanent, and temporary—are formed by adding word elements to existing words or by combining word elements. In English, there are three basic word elements: the prefix such as anti- , non- , pre- , post- , re- , super- , the suffix as -er , -ism , -ist , -less , -ful , -ness , and the combining form mini- , macro- , psuedo- , -graphy , -logy.
Prefixes and suffixes are usually attached to existing words; combining forms are usually combined to form new words photomicrograph.
For the most part, compounds formed from a prefix and a word are usually written solid superhero. However, if the prefix ends with a vowel and the word it is attached to begins with a vowel, the compound is usually hyphenated de-escalate , co-organizer , pre-engineered.
But there are exceptions: reelection , cooperate , for example. In addition, usage calls for hyphenation between a prefix and a capitalized word or number post-Colonial, preth century. A prefixed compound that would be identical with another word, if written solid, is usually hyphenated to prevent misreading re-creation , co-op , multi-ply.
Prefixed compounds that might otherwise be solid are often hyphenated in order to clarify their formation, meaning, or pronunciation non-news , de-iced , tri-city. Also, such compounds formed from combining forms like Anglo- , Judeo- , or Sino- are hyphenated when the second element is an independent word and solid when it is a combining form Judeo-Christian , Sino-Japanese , Anglophile. Some prefixes, and initial combining forms, have related independent adjectives or adverbs that may be used where the prefix might be expected.
Thus, the writer must decide which style to follow quasi intellectual or quasi-intellectual ; pseudo liberal or pseudo-liberal. Compounds formed by adding a suffix to a word are usually written solid yellowish , characterless , except those having a base word that has a suffix beginning with the same letter or is a proper name jewel-like , American-ness. Then, there are unique formations such as president-elect and heir apparent. Additionally, when a word is used as a modifier of a proper name, it is usually attached by a hyphen "a Los Angeles-based company," "a Pulitzer Prize-winning author".
0コメント